Frankincense and myrrh are well-known examples of fragrant resin highly demanded and valued by the people of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome, China, and India.
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(Photo Credit : Sayak Bala)
Aromatics and spices have been synonymous with wealth, exclusivity, and luxury, although elites could justify their use as necessary owing to their religious, funerary, medical, and culinary importance (Cobb 2013).
Frankincense and myrrh are well-known examples of fragrant resin highly demanded and valued by the people of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece, Rome, China, and India.
The earliest recorded use of plant aromatics is found in the four Vedas of ancient India. These texts are proto Hindu, written between 1500–1000 B.C.E., and include descriptions of the already sophisticated use of aromatics.
The spiritual significance of aromatic plants was highlighted in these ancient texts and was often referred to as the “Spirit of life” (Prâna) (Bloomfield 1897:218) and used as a fragrant smoke for spiritual connections with heaven and as offerings during divine worship (Hymn II. Agni.)
The Sanskrit epic narrative Mahābhārata (describing the period 1493–1443 B.C.E. of Indian history [Iyengar 2003]) contains the description of the use of fragrance in the context of human pleasure, luxury, and well-being (Rhind 2014).
Agarwood was often identified in the text as a display of wealth, a tribute, and a greeting. In the first book of Mahābhārata, the people of the ancient city of Khandavaprastha received distant visitors (Madhava and other tribes) by filling every part of the town “with the sweet scent of burning agarwood.”
Also in Book 1, the use of agarwood for displaying status and wealth was detailed in the description of an amphitheater on the outskirts of King Drupada’s capital (Kamapilya), which was “enclosed on all sides with high walls and a moat (and) scented with black agarwood and sprinkled all over with water mixed with sandal paste and decorated with garlands of flowers”.
The mansions that surrounded this amphitheater were also “rendered fragrant with excellent agarwood,” and the “exalted sovereigns” that inhabited the mansions were “possessed with the desire of excelling one another” and “all adorned with the fragrant paste of the black agarwood”
The second book contains a detailed description of the mansions of monarchs, which “hung over with garlands of flowers and perfumed with excellent agarwood”
It also details that after the Bharatas people conquered the Mlechchha tribes, the vanquished were made to pay tributes of a great many valuable items including fragrant goods of sandalwood and agarwood.
In the Vedas, agarwood is listed among nature’s eight sought-after fragrant bounties —
“Agar tagar chandan yugal, kesar aur kapoor
Gaurochan aur mrigmida, ashtagandh bharpoor”
Translation : Agar: oud or agarwood; tagar: turmeric-like fragrant root; chandan yugal: sandalwood pair, namely red and white sandalwood, the latter being more fragrant; kesar: saffron; kapoor: camphor; gaurochan; cow spleen; mrigmida: musk; ashtagandha bharpoor: the ashtagandha through all eight materials, becomes complete and whole.
The refined use of agarwood and many other aromatics in this text indicates a long association with and veneration for fragrant products.
Agarwood is referenced several times in the Old Testament of the Christian Bible, firstly where Balaam describes God’s vision of Israel and likens their settlements as being “like agarwood planted by the LORD” (Numbers 24:6).
Also in the Old Testament, the noble and seductive importance of agarwood is presented in Psalm 45:8 where, recounting a king’s preparation for marriage, it states that “All your robes are fragrant with myrrh and agarwood and cassia.”
The seductive power of aromatics including agarwood is further described in Song of Songs 4:14 rejoicing the sexual attraction between two lovers, where one praises the other “Your plants are an orchard of every kind of incense tree, with myrrh and agarwood and all the finest spices.”
In several Buddhists texts, there are references to the use of aromatics in religious rituals.
For instance, in the Jātaka tales, which are extensive literary works about the Buddha Birth stories (~ 4th century B.C.E.) (Pierce 1969), agarwood is mentioned in Vol VI no. 542.
Both agarwood and sandalwood, in combination with other valuable items, were used as a mark of respect and were already being used as valuable fragrant products during ancient times.
In the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra (Nirvana Sutra), the use of aromatics is mentioned in the introductory chapter. In one description, the use of fragrant wood in the cremation of Tathāgata’s (Buddha) body is mentioned, “people each held in their hands tens of thousands of bundles of such fragrant wood as sandalwood, agarwood, goirsa sandalwood, and heavenly wood.”
Agarwood was also used as fuel in stoves to prepare meals for the Buddha and the Sangha (monks).
In poem 35 (7), The Seventh: Sesavati’s Mansion (Sesavatīvimāna), during the funeral ceremony of the venerable Captain of Dhamma (Sāriputta), agarwood, sandalwood, and similar woods were used as a part of the pyre of a hundred cubits high (Ireland 2005).
Bazin (2013) suggested that five natural incense products represented the speech of the five buddhas and included sandalwood, agarwood, pine resin or juniper, camphor, and vetiver root.
In several Hadith (reports of the words, actions, or tacit approval of the prophet Muḥammad, agarwood is referred to as a type of Indian incense (i.e., Ūd Al- Hindi or agarwood).
Allah’s Messenger was quoted (by Abu Huraira) describing Paradise where, among many wondrous things, agarwood would be used in their censers (incense burner) (Sahih al-Bukhari 3327, Book 60, Hadith 2)
The use of agarwood as a medical treatment was recommended by the prophet Muhammad and was said to contain seven types of remedies, including one for a swollen uvula and another for pleurisy (Sahih al-Bukhari 5692, 5693, Book 76, Hadith 15; USC-MSA English reference Sahih al-Bukhari Vol. 7, Book 71, Hadith 596, 613; Sunan Abi Dawud 3877, Book 29, Hadith 23; English translation Book 28, Hadith 3868).
Agarwood was also cited as relieving common ailments, and the Prophet said, concerning a Muhrim (pilgrim) whose head or eyes hurt: Let him smudge them with agarwood (Sunan an-Nasa’i 2711, Book 24, Hadith 0; English translation Vol. 3, Book 24, Hadith 2712).
Agarwood was used in the important practice of fumigation/ purification where Nafi’ reports on Ibn Umar fumigating with agarwood either by itself or mixed with camphor (Sahih Muslim 2254 Book 40, Hadith 23; English translation Book 27, Hadith 5601).
It is known that the prophet Muhammad preferred the scent of agarwood or a combination of agarwood and camphor (Book 27 no. 5601) (Sahih Muslim n.d.).
The burning of incense in a mosque was practiced by Umar the second caliph, which led to the practice becoming commonplace. There is no record of what was burnt, but it is believed that it was agarwood by itself or combined with camphor (Ergin 2014).
]]>It is said that aloeswood was in such short supply in the time of the caliph Al Mutawakkil that he sent an envoy to India with presents to request a supply. The envoy who was apparently the famous courtier Ibn Hamdūn al-Nadīm, found the king of India in Lahuwār (Lahore?) to be most hospitable, for he had been raised in exile in Oman and was thus conversant with Arabic as well as indian culture. His court was rich with imported goods from the Middle East and Iran, including perfumes.
“Before him were vessels of gold and silver; and many Iraqi metalworks, all beautiful and filled with camphor, rosewater, ambergris, the compound perfume called nadd and figurines. The nadd was likely an import from the Middle East rather than an Indian incense, given the context and the figurines would have been made from aromatics such as ambergris. At the end of lbn Hamdūn's extended stay the king, whose friend he had become, burned for him a rare aloeswood that was a sliver smaller than half a dāniq. It had an indescribably pleasant scent, and it lingered in cloth after repeated washing with soap. Apparently this rare scent was the stuff of legends, for the wood grew in an inaccessible place and only could be had by shooting deer that happened to have been there and sometimes were found chewing on bits of it, hence its extreme rarity. Al Mutawakkil received half of a ratl of it and deemed it worth the expedition after he had censed with it."
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In the medieval period, Sinfi aloes (also known as Sanfi aloes) were very popular in the lands of Arabs and it came from the place called Es-Sinf /Es-Sanf(الصنف). Sinf is identified with Champa which was a collection of independent polities that extended across the coast of what is today central and southern Vietnam. Some of the historians mention the Sinfi aloes with great fondness like for example Ya‘qubi (9th century Geographer) refers to few traders who hold that ‘Sanfi aloe is better than Qaqulli aloe, and it has more delicious fragrance, clinging and safe from attracting others by its odor’. And likewise Ibn Khurdzbeh (9th century, Persian Geographer) ranks it high ‘for it sinks in water because it is good and heavy.’
Al-Masudi mentions about Es-Sinf and its resources in his book Entitled Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems
“This sea begins from el-Basrah and el-Obollah, and extends along el-Bahrain from the sea-marks of el- Basrah. Then comes the sea of Ladiwa (of the Lacadives): on this sea Safura, Subarah, Tanah, Sindabur, Kanbayat, and other places of India and es-Sind, are situated. Then comes the sea of Harkand; then the sea of Kalah, which is also spelt Kolah, and of the islands; then the sea of Kundranj then the sea of es-Sinf, from which the Sinfi aloes has its name; for it comes from thence; then the sea of China, which is the sea of Saihu; and there is no sea beyond it.”
Al Masudi continues
“Next follows the sea of es-Sinf (الصنف), according to the division which we have just made. In this sea are the dominions of the Maharaj, the king of the islands. The population and number of the troops of his kingdom cannot be counted; and the islands under his sceptre are so numerous, that the most fast sailing vessel is not able to go round them in two years. This king is in possession of several kinds of spices and perfumes; and no kingdom has more natural resources, nor more articles for exportation, than this. Among these are camphor, aloes, gillyflowers, sandalwood, betelnuts, mace, cardamoms, cubebs, and the like. The limits of this sea, which extends from these islands towards the sea of China, are not known, and its extent is unexplored.”
Likewise Ibn Muhalhal (10th century) also reported sanfi aloes originating from the city called Sanf which is at the foot of mount Kāfūr
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One of the envoys of the Abbasid caliph embarks upon a journey to India to bring for him the Indian aloeswood (agarwood, oud). But the turn of events brings a twist in the story...
Indeed one of the aspect of oud is that it transcended all human races and cultures, cut across all geographical boundaries to weave its magic and charm upon all throughout the recorded history! Even though the trees of agarwood grow in the far east, yet we find it being mentioned by ancient Egyptians and the Greeks, Romans, Persians and the Arabs for its fragrance, medicinal use, health benefits and therapeutic properties. Indeed it was one of the most sought after commodity by various societies and empires in trade with India, China and other eastern kingdoms and nations. It was part of major trade routes through land and sea like silk route, spice routes and incense trade route.
One very famous incident involving agarwood, also called as aloeswood, of Hind (India) occurred during the reign of al-Mutawakkil ‘ala-Allah who was an Abbasid caliph and ruled between 847 to 861 AD. The incident is recorded in Kitab al-Hadaya wa al-Tuhaf (Book of Gifts and Rarities). Given here is its translation in English. Read it and enjoy it!
Ali b. al-Munajjim says:
One night we were sitting before al-Mutawakkil ‘ala-Allah, together with ‘Ubayd-Allah b. al-Hasan b. Sahl, who was a cultured and charming person and who was sociable with people and met with their notables. On that day al-Mutawakkil had been cupped (ihtajama) and had become weak. The doctors advised him to fumigate himself with good, fresh (nayy) aloeswood (ud), and so he did. Everyone who was at that gathering swore that he had never smelled anything like that aloeswood. Then ‘Ubayd-Allah b. al-Hasan b. Sahl said, “This is from the aloeswood offered to my father by the King of India for the wedding of my sister Buran with al-Ma’mun.” Al-Mutawakkil said he was mistaken and asked for the [scent] basket from which the piece of [aloeswood] had been taken out. A piece of this aloeswood, less than one ounce, was found along with a slip of paper on which was written, “This aloeswood is the gift of the King of India to al-Hasan b. Sahl for the wedding of Buran to al-Ma’mun.” Al-Mutawakkil felt ashamed at not believing him and therefore ordered a gift for him. Al-Mutawakkil summoned his minister, ‘Ubayd-Allah b. Yahya b. Khaqan, and said to him, “Fetch immediately one of your trustworthy colleagues, give him a thousand dinars for his [personal] expenses, and let him take [various] gifts [of things] that do not exist in India, to the value of ten thousand dinars. Tell the envoy to notify the king of India that we expect no reward from him other than whatever he has of this aloeswood.” The envoy went for that purpose and returned to Samarra on the night in which al-Mutawakkil ala-Allah was murdered. He adhered to the aloeswood that he had brought with him, until al-Mutamid ala Allah ascended [the throne] and ordered the return of ‘Ubayd-Allah b. Yahya to his [ministerial] office. The [envoy] said,
When ‘Ubayd-Allah returned to his office, I came into his [room], and when he looked at me he said, “Are you our envoy to the King of India?” I said, “Yes, I am. I departed from Samarra for the mission you ordered me [to accomplish], and I arrived in Baghdad from Qutrabbul, carrying with me three hundred large bottles (khumasiyyah) of its wines.
“As the sea water became [too] salty for me [to drink], I began to mix it with this wine. By the time I reached India, I had consumed a hundred large bottles (khumasiyyah). I came to the king, delivered the gift, and he was pleased with it. I informed him of [my mission] regarding the aloeswood. He said, “That [aloeswood] was sent by my father, and by God, I have not more than a hundred mann of it in my treasuries; so take half of it and leave the other half.” I kept on being friendly with him until he allowed me a hundred and fifty ratls. One day he invited me for a meal. When we had eaten, coconut wine (nabidh al-narajjil) was brought. So I said to him, “I do not drink this,” and I brought out some of the Qutrabbuli wine that I carried with me. When the King saw it, smelled it, and tasted it, he said, “What is this [drink]?” I said, “Grape juice.” He said, “Do you die if you drink it?” I said, “Yes.” He said, “Because you dilute it with little water and continue drinking it all night.”
The envoy [continued his story and] said [to the minister],
I handed him over a hundred khumasiyyah, and he ordered a hundred thousand dirhams for me, along with fabrics (thiyab), scents, and other things of similar value. I left his residence, drank what was left on me on the way [back], and when I reached Samarra the incident of al-Mutawakkil’s [murder] had already happened. Now this very aloeswood is kept at my house. ‘Ubayd-Allah said to him, “Whatever you have got, keep it with my blessings, except for the aloeswood; bring that as it is.”
[The envoy] did so, and ‘Ubayd-Allah took it all.
The people used to describe to each other the pleasant smell of ‘Ubayd-Allah’s scent; it was from that very aloeswood with which he used to fumigate himself, and he never used anything else.”
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